tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-37020077932040023142024-03-08T13:07:43.155-08:00The Genial GriffinAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.comBlogger16125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-36200944269218796532012-03-03T08:46:00.001-08:002012-03-03T08:47:29.407-08:00Canoodling Can Kill!Radioactivity is to many a mysterious and sometimes frightening topic. As with most things that invoke fear or apprehension, it’s the unknown or misunderstood that is at the heart of the issue. The very idea of an unseen, tasteless, odorless, pernicious thing that can slowly cook you from the inside out is rightfully a bit intimidating. So with that in mind let’s talk about how the person lying next to you at night is unknowingly or maybe after this write-up a bit more knowingly, slowly “nuking” you.<br /><br />Many atoms, at one point or another, experience a phenomenon that is known as radioactive decay. This process is, to oversimplify a bit, when an atom spontaneously explodes due to some curious processes within its nucleus. During the explosion ionizing particles are emitted. These particles come in various forms and travel often with incredible velocity and under the correct circumstances or in sufficient volume can be, well, deadly. If given the opportunity, these particles can knock around and tear up the very essence of your vitality, your DNA. When this happens they tend to kill the cells in-which the DNA was “nuked”. If enough cells are compromised and wiped out by these pesky mysterious particles, the result is the untimely expiration of the host of the exterminated cells. Pretty frightening stuff it seems.<br /><br />Let’s now take that a step further and see why health codes should make it illegal for people to sleep in close proximity to one another.<br /><br />Potassium is an interesting element. This element labeled “K” on the periodic table is necessary for our survival. It facilitates some key functions in the transport and efficacy of nerve impulse. The K designation comes from the Latin word “kalium” for pot ash, a source from which in ancient time’s potassium was obtained. Even the English name potassium still caries the origins coming from the word “potash”. On average you or I have about 40 grams of this substance in our bodies to survive. Here is where things turn macabre.<br /><br />Typical potassium in our body is a stable isotope. The nucleus of this atom contains 19 protons, and 20 neutrons totaling 39, so it’s labeled K-39. In addition lurking within our bodies is a rouge misfit type of potassium. In fact about .01% of the potassium we harbor within us silently is known as potassium-40, and potassium-40 is radioactive. This radioactive isotope is cancer causing, and about 1,000 atoms of this little monster inside of us are exploding every second! Most of these explosions eject a stealthy little beta ray at mind bending speed, but some produce the ray of nightmares, gamma rays. The beta rays will only serve to bring yourself harm and will never exit your bodies, but the gamma rays . . . they are far more sinister.<br /><br />The gamma rays can and do in fact jet from your body and pummel anyone in close proximity. You may not glow green like in the comic books, but you are for a fact radioactive. Enough so that if one extrapolates the math and relies on the linear hypothesis which predicts long term biological damage caused by radiation exposure, it will be discovered that world wide potentially 200 people could die annually from cancer just from sleeping in the same bed with someone nightly!<br /><br />Ok so, now that my small bit of fun hyperbole has been put out there lets just clarify. Yes, these facts are real and the statistics support my math assuming the linear hypothesis, or linear no-threshold model (LNT) has any merit in determining the potential for fatal doses of radiation over large populations (a subject of a fair amount of debate). Really though, is there need to run to IKEA and dump the California king bed for two twins? Should we invest in a led barrier to divide the sheets, or sleep with the 40 pound vest we beg our dentist to sell us after our X-rays. Nah – do some canoodling and soak up the gamma rays – can’t live forever.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-89107395493775955172010-05-03T23:48:00.000-07:002010-05-03T23:49:10.872-07:00Gravity...Gravity.<br /><br />Its always interesting how things that dominate our life can often be overlooked, misunderstood or taken for granted. Gravity is one of these. The nature of gravity is to this day still being decoded and it was not until the day so Newton that is nature could be expressed mathematically. On that note we will consider a little about gravity now.<br /><br />First interesting facts:<br /><br />At an altitude of 100km which is the edge the atmosphere the force of gravity is only decreased by 3%.<br /><br />If the sun where instantly turned into an infinitely small black hole and its mass didn’t change the earths orbit would not change.<br /><br />If one weighs in at 150lbs and is sitting from another person of approximately the same weight the force of gravity would cause an attraction between the two individuals that equates to about the weight of a flea.<br /><br />Pounds are a measurement of weight; Kilograms are a measurement of mass. So if one weighed 150 pounds on earth they would weigh approximately 63 pounds on the moon, but if they weighed 75 kilograms on earth they would also weigh 75 kilograms on the moon.<br /><br />Astronauts are not weightless in space. An astronauts weighing 150 pounds on the surface of earth would weigh only 8lbs less in orbit at 200kilometers, they would not be weightless despite appearing to float around.<br /><br />A satellite in low earth orbit (LEO) or a few hundred miles above the earth must travel at a pace of 8 km/s to maintain its altitude. At this speed it takes only 1.5 hours to orbit the earth.<br /><br />Oil companies use gravity to search for Oil. How so? Oil is less dense then rock. Because of this when one is standing above an oil field they actually weigh less then on typical land since the material below them is less dense and exerts less of a gravitational force. Companies have exploited this fact and measured the discrepancy in gravitational pull over large areas of the planet, there by creating gravitational maps in an attempt to find fields of oil in areas of less gravity.<br /><br />Examples of these maps can be seen here:<br /><br />http://athenapub.com/chixgra1.htm<br /><br />More later on Gravity and acceleration.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-84125044169292128912010-04-22T22:37:00.001-07:002010-04-22T22:37:41.959-07:00Engines and HeatEngines and Heat<br /><br />Any engine that converts heat to mechanical motion is considered a Heat Engine. An obvious example of this is the internal combustion engine. In an internal combustion engine gasoline and air are injected into a chamber known as the cylinder. Here a spark is introduced inducing a conflagration that turns the mixture into hot gas. The high pressure from the gas forces the movement of a piston, which further supplies motion to gears that ultimately turn the wheels.<br /><br />Another heat engine that is not so obvious is a nuclear engine. Some military submarines and aircraft carriers run on nuclear power. The basis of the extraction of the energy from the system is actually quite elementary despite the perception. Nuclear power is simply used to heat water and steam. This steam drives, or spins a turbine, which is not much more then a sophisticated fan. The mechanical motion of the turbine is used to spin the prop or propeller of the ship, along with providing electrical energy.<br /><br />Most of us are familiar with the heat that radiates from engines. It is this very heat that is an indicator of the inefficiency of an engine. Although heat is converted to mechanical much if not the majority of the heat produced in the combustion of the gasoline and air is conducted away to surroundings and is lost or wasted. Typically with automobiles 20%-30% of the heat produced is applied toward useful motion, the rest is wasted heat energy. So much heat energy is wasted in fact that special mechanisms are in place in a standard gasoline engine to help manage and remove the excess heat without the engine destroying itself from its own inefficiencies.<br /><br />This brings us to an interesting tidbit on thermodynamics. There is a set limit to the efficiency of any heat engine.<br /><br />As was noted in previous blog posts the temperature of any substance is directly related to kinetic energy of its atoms and molecules. So everything even at room temperature has a considerable amount of energy stored in it. The trick in extracting the energy for use. As it turns out the thermal energy of water at room temperature is about .04 Cal/g which is 5 times the average energy in a battery. So why not extract the energy from water and liberate the world if the reliance on fossil fuels? Well the trouble lies in one of the greatest discoveries in the theory of heat, that is that heat can only be extracted when flowing from a hot region to a cold region. And it is defined by the following equation:<br /><br />1-(T^cold/T^hot)<br /><br />Efficiency is always less then or equal to the solution to that equation when extracting energy from heat. (This does not apply to chemical energy from batteries or solar energy from solar cells). <br /><br />So to answer the question of why we can’t save the world by extracting the existing energy from room temperature water to supply power we can apply the equation and concepts above. First as we noted energy can only be extracted from heat flowing from a hot region to a colder region. And the equation defines that process. So looking at the equation we can see the Temperature^cold is divided by the Temperature^hot both in Kelvin. Hypothetically if room temperature was 300 Kelvin and the water was at room temperature it too would be 300 Kelvin. Applying those temperatures to the equation we get:<br /><br />1-(300/300)=0<br /><br />So the efficiency would be zero. The efficiency of extraction of heat energy is dependent on the difference in temperature. <br /><br />This may lead one to ask, if the temperature of the T^hot was very high, even if the T^cold was room temperature wouldn’t that make for a very efficient engine, surely higher then 20-30% we get from modern car engines? The answer is yes, but that bridge has been crossed. Prior to the 70’s engines such as that of the Volkswagen Beetle in fact ran at a very high temperature greatly increasing the efficiency of the engine. At the time it was also believed to be a benefit as nearly all the carbon was turned into carbon dioxide, making the engine appear to run clean. Unfortunately what was not understood until later was that the high temperatures of these engines turned N2O4 into two atoms of NO2, or Nitrous Oxide, which is a toxic component of smog. Regulation finally regulated the maximum NO2 output of automobile engines and as a result the temperature of engines today run as high as possible while still maintaining suitable levels of NO2 output, but at the expense of decreased efficiency.<br /><br />Next Blog: Refrigeration, Heat Pumps, and Heat Flow.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-25544099187352362752010-04-08T00:13:00.000-07:002010-04-08T00:15:46.685-07:00More on Energy and ExpansionOk, we have been pounding on the idea that heat is really just kinetic energy, and we are going to take it a little farther gain, hopefully in the pursuit of clarity.<br /><br />As we know from the previous blog posts, the heat of a substance is the motions of its molecules. At some point of low temperature it’s obvious that there must be an end point, since if there is no movement of any of the molecules the effective energy is zero. That zero point is known as absolute zero and is equal to zero Kelvin. Typically in physics when referring to temperature the Kelvin scale is used. This is convenient since the standard equation for the energy of any system is based squarely on Kelvin.<br /><br />E=2x10^-23T^k<br /><br />E=Energy, T=Temperature in (k) Kelvin<br /><br />No need remember this equation just the simplicity of its implications. Temperature is just the kinetic energy…when at the same temperature the energy of the molecules and atoms of the air are the same as those in a piece of paper, or a desk, or a pillow. The difficulty part is that these energies have to be measured per molecule and this fact eluded great minds for centuries, but the byproducts are intuitive. It is this very simplicity that some physicists like Richard Muller have pointed out is the “beauty” of physics. It’s not a traditional beauty; it’s the beauty of the simplicity, the beauty of the fact that when striped of its erudite mathematics the core principles are clear and reasonable.<br /><br />To take ideas we discussed in the previous blog a step farther let’s apply what we have learned about increasing the energy or heat of a substance to solids. We considered that due to the low mass of atoms like helium, at room temperature in order to comply with the zeroth law of thermodynamics their velocity must be very high. When confined in a container like a bloom their high velocity causes them to collide with vigor and throw each other apart. The result is the average density of a helium balloon is less then that of the atmosphere allowing it to rise. If you place a helium balloon on a pool of liquid hydrogen (20.28K,-252.87Celcius) this will cause the helium atoms to cool and the result is quite clear as the balloon will contract and become smaller. Again this is because the velocity of the helium atoms has decreased as they cool and they then collide less frequently and with less energy.<br /><br />The effect of the increase of temperature and kinetic energy is also relevant in solids. Typically solids expand by 1 part in 1000 to 1 part in 100,000 for every degree Kelvin (side note 1 degree Celsius = 1 degree Kelvin) increase. This may sound like a nominal amount but if one considers a structure like a suspension bridge the implications are necessary to consider. A bridge like the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge in Brooklyn which has a main span of over 4000 ft experience temperature swings of up to 30 degree Kelvin. The by product of this is an expansion or contraction of up to 2 feet. In addition the cables that transmit the weight of the bridge also contract or expand with temperature causing the center of the bridge to be 12 ft higher in the winger then the summer.<br /><br />Another interesting byproduct of this is induced by the much hyped global warming. We have all heard over and over ad nauseum of the alarmingly imminent rise in sea-level due to global warming. The common misconception is that solely the glacial melting will increase the overall volume of the oceans thereby pushing up the sea level catastrophically. And although this could contribute nominally to a rise in global sea levels the sneaky culprit may really be the byproducts of heat expansion. The volume expansion of water is 2x10^-4 per degree Kelvin. Given this the math works out such that with an average ocean depth of 12,000 ft a rise in temperature of 5 degrees Kelvin (9 Fahrenheit) would equate to a rise in average sea level of approximately 6 feet. This rise caused by heat / kinetic energy induced expansion is enough to overwhelm most of the populated areas of Florida. (There are some details on quirky dynamics of water around 4 degrees Celsius that modify the more specific outcome of these equations, but the end result is still enough to account for flooding Florida’s populated areas and many other littoral populaces.)Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-41145751991238310222010-03-26T00:03:00.000-07:002010-03-26T00:05:03.305-07:00More on Heat and Energy: Where is all the Hydrogen?More on Heat and Energy: Where is all the Hydrogen?<br /><br />In an earlier blog we address the fact that Hydrogen is not a truly clean alternative fuel. This is because hydrogen is not an available resource on this planet. It has to be manufactured which is a dirty process in itself. So the question is where is all the Hydrogen? <br /><br />This is a relevant question considering Hydrogen is the most abundant visible element in the universe. It makes up the majority of the mass of the sun and most stars. Jupiter is 89% hydrogen, Saturn is 96% hydrogen…so what’s with earth? <br /> <br />Well to answer this question we need to take a brief look at the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.<br /><br />Interestingly the zeroth law of thermodynamic is one of the most important laws discovered in science. Unfortunately it was not fully understood until after the first three laws where numbered and detailed, and dubbing it the 4th law seemed inappropriate. So in the 1920s Ralph Fowler a British physicist coined the term zeroth law to mark its significance. Although it’s erudite aspects took fertile and deep minds to resolve, its application is very simple in everyday experience. <br /><br />When two things touch each other they tend to reach the same temperature. The more surface area in contact the greater the transfer of energy. Place a hot cup of coffee on a cold desk and it will get cold quick, place it with a small edge on the desk and the other on edge on a raised surface such as a post-it stack, and the surface of the bottom of the cup will be mostly in contact with cold air rather then the cold desk. Since air is not near the conductor of energy as average desk the coffee stay warmer longer. A simple thermometer works on the same principle. When a thermometer is in the air it tends to reach the same temperature as the air. This is true because the molecules in the air impart their kinetic energy too the molecules in the thermometer if the air is warmer. In the event the air is colder the molecules in the thermometer are more energetic then the molecules in the air and as the energetic molecules on the thermometer surface strike air molecules they lose energy to the air, much like a q-ball will stop or slow when it strikes a stationary ball on a pool table. This happens millions or billions of times and eventually the thermometer will either lose or give the kinetic energy of the motion of its molecules to the air if it was initially warmer then the air, or if the thermometer is initially colder it will acquire energy from the air. Either way, the air and thermometer will come to the same relative energy or temperature. Only when the relative energies or temperature of the two objects are the same does the flow of energies cease.<br /><br />Now with that in mind, one more small detail is necessary to clarify. Just because two objects have the same temperature does not mean necessarily that the molecules in the objects are moving at the same speed. Since the temperature is the kinetic energy of the molecules this would make one thing clear, the smaller the molecule the faster it would have to move to have energy. Since energy is a product of the velocity and the mass, a molecule that is larger would move slower then a small molecule and yet have the same energy. This is much like a pool ball would have to be traveling at a considerably higher speed then a bowling ball to scatter the pins at the end of a bowling lane with the same vigor. In a similar fashion if one imagined a baseball moving at 90mph one can accept that a professional catcher could manage to catch it, but if one visualized a bowling ball traveling at 90mph striking a catcher we can reason the results would be dire. This is because the energy of the item is a product of speed and mass. So since this is true, in materials made up larger molecules their molecules average velocity would be less then materials at the same temperature made up of smaller molecules.<br /><br />Ok, so once one can absorb the information above one can see why there is no or little hydrogen in earth’s atmosphere. If hydrogen was released into the atmosphere, because of the zeroth law of thermodynamics, we could reasonably conclude that it would have to reach the same temperature, and same energy as the air around it. That said, its velocity would have to be substantial enough to allow it to have the same kinetic energy as the surrounding air. Now with that in mind consider that hydrogen is the lightest of all atoms…it’s miserably lacking in mass, in fact its 1/16 the weight of oxygen. So in order to come to the same energy it has to move incredibly fast, so fast it actually has a velocity significant enough to escape the pull of earth’s gravity. Over time due to the average velocity that allows hydrogen atoms to exceed earths escape velocity ( we will go over escape velocity in later blogs) of approximately 25,000 mph frequently enough that eventually the majority of hydrogen has escaped our atmosphere. So because of zeroth law, kinetic energy, and high velocities hydrogen is scarce.<br /><br />Few things to ponder now that we have clarified these points…what makes a helium balloon or hot air balloon rise? Most think it’s because helium or hot air is “lighter” or more “buoyant”…but the real reason is in the details above and revolve around energy, and velocity.<br /><br />What makes your voice sound funny when you breathe helium? Some believe it’s because it affects your vocal cords, or that the pitch changes. When in reality helium has little or no effect on your vocal cords, and in fact the pitch of ones voice does not change. Rather, it’s the timber of your voice that changes, and the details of why are again found in the facts above.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-69331386749565586612010-03-11T23:50:00.000-08:002010-03-11T23:53:07.330-08:00What is Heat?What is Heat? Interestingly to build on last week’s blog, heat is kinetic energy. But we will address in particular a bit later. First let’s think about what everything is made of.<br /><br />All substances are made up of atoms, of which only about 92 are of available in nature. From there, atoms combine to form molecules. Molecules are chains or collections of atoms. These chains or collections come in various structures and shapes and this determines to a great degree the way we perceive, interact, or can manipulate them at a macroscopic – real world – level. <br /><br />A good example of this is water. Often we see expressions of the atomic structure of molecules, such as water which is expressed as H2O. This signifies that the molecule water consists of 2 atoms of Hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen. A water molecule is dipolar, which means that there is an opposite charge on each end of the atom. The Hydrogen’s come together at one end and the Oxygen at the other. Since the Oxygen atom has a slightly higher electronegativty, it causes this end of the water molecule to have a slightly negative charge, and the Hydrogen end to a manifest a positive charge. This charge can be seen if one takes a comb that has a slight negative charge on it from running it through hair, and holds it near a narrow stream of falling water. The electronegative electrons left behind on the comb will attract the slight positive charge of the hydrogen atoms in water and cause it to bend or be attracted toward the charged comb.<br /><br />Another example that is unique to water and dictated by its atomic structure is its being known as the “universal solvent.” This means that water has the amazing ability to break down many other substances and act as a solvent. Again this is a by product of its dipolar structure. As an example, typical table salt or NaCl which consist of the separately toxic substances of Sodium and Chlorine is easily dissolved in water. After juggling an electron, the electropositive charge of the sodium binds well with the electronegative charge of the chlorine atoms, creating a stable ionic bond in the absence of water. When water is introduced the dipolar nature of water is insidious. The positive charge of the two hydrogen atoms pulls the negative charge of the salts chlorine and the negative charge of the waters oxygen attracts the sodium. And through a divide and conquer method repeated billions of times the divisive charges of the water atoms overwhelms the ionic bond of the NaCl breaks it down. Most any substance whose electromagnetic bonds can not overcome the small but abundant dipolar H2O atoms are soluble in water.<br /><br />Ok, so now that we have addressed a couple examples of how atoms although extraordinarily small can have and macroscopic effect we can address heat briefly. <br /><br />What is heat?<br /><br />In ordinary substances the molecules that constitute a substances structure are constantly in motion. They continually bounce off each other and off other and other materials they come into contact with. This motion is universal and constant, and the hotter a material gets the faster on average these molecules and atoms move and bounce off each other. Conversely the colder something is the slower or less vigorously the molecules move, that is until one reaches zero Kelvin where theoretically the motion of all the molecules ceases. So how can we observe this in real life? Well, when one rubs their hands together, the friction speeds up slightly the molecules in the hand, and they intern propagate their motion by bouncing off adjacent molecules and ultimately the average speed of the molecules in your hand increases, and thereby the heat or warmth increases. And how fast on average to molecules move in a substance? Well interestingly it works out at room temperature to be about the speed of sound. And remember that although a molecule is moving fast, it can not move far without bumping into another molecule and bouncing off. Because of this each individual molecule does not move far over time but rather experience a slow random walk. <br /><br />So again, what is heat, well heat is kinetic energy. Heat is the individual motion of a molecule running into another molecule, imparting its kinetic or motion energy on the adjacent molecule. So when a pot of water is heated up, the molecules average speed increased. Each individual molecule on average gains a little more speed, and from this a little bit more kinetic energy. Then if one takes their hand which is approximately 99 degrees and in which the individual molecules are moving slower on average then in the boiling water, and places it in the water, the individual molecules of the water collide with the skin molecules and impart their acceleration and energy to your hand. This energy or acceleration of the molecules in ones hand is perceived as heat, or in the case of boiling water, enough energy or speed is imparted to result in damaging the skin cells. So heat is kinetic energy.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-73763611852044007922010-03-05T18:38:00.000-08:002012-10-14T11:10:02.847-07:00Off Topic: Hit the Gym you Downer!Of Topic: Hit the Gym Your Being a Downer!<br />
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Ok, so without going into the agonizing statistics it can be resolutely stated that a lot of people are depressed, stressed out, fatigued, or generally bummed out more often then not. And without a protracted discussion of the details it’s clear that the majority of people’s emotional wellbeing and day to day outlook on life is mediated by chemicals in our brains. Our brains are a chemical machine, and if you believe that you should read on.<br />
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Tryptophan commonly associated with the notorious sleepiness following a turkey dinner. Is one of the 20 standard amino acids, and being as such, it can not be synthesized or manufactured by our bodies; it has to be taken in via diet. Tryptophan is also a vital biochemical precursor to Serotonin. Too little Tryptophan usually equals too little Serotonin. And what is Serotonin? Simply it’s the feel good neurotransmitter, and it’s responsible for many functions although the following are interesting:<br />
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1. Feeling of well being, satisfaction. MDMA “ecstasy” elicits these happy uninhibited feelings via allowing serotonin remain in our brain, and facilitates the production of serotonin – although in unhealthy amounts.<br />
2. Serotonin is believed to mitigate symptoms of depression include chronic fatigue syndrome, insomnia or sleeping frequently and for excessive periods of time, loss of appetite or a ravenous appetite, headaches, backaches, colon disorders, and feelings of worthlessness and inadequacy.<br />
3. Serotonin also acts as a growth factor for some types of cells and may be linked to healing.<br />
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Ok..so what then? Well since Tryptophan is an essential precursor to the production of Serotonin its availability is vital to experience the necessary positive byproducts of serotonin. Interestingly though Tryptophan has a struggle on its hands. Here is why.<br />
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Your brain is like a well guarded fortress and it only lets in particular molecules via very particular transport mechanism. This barrier that protects the brain is called the “blood brain barrier.” Serotonin can not cross this blood brain barrier, which means you can eat all you want of it, and it will never make you feel good since it will never get in your brain. Tryptophan can cross the blood brain barrier, so just eating it is the solution, right? Not entirely. Tryptophan is a relatively small amino acid, and it has to hitch a ride on a “transport bus” through the blood brain barrier to get in your brain and be used to synthesize serotonin. Unfortunately these “transport buses” are often already packed with 5 other large amino acids, tyrosine, phenylalanine, valine, leucine and isoleucine, and these can inhibit or crowd out the Tryptophan amino acid from making it through the blood brain barrier. Sucks to be the little guy it seems.<br />
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Now…here is the kicker, during exercise, the mussels utilize the other available amino acids for nutrients. The harder you work, often the more your mussels monopolize these other amino acids, and the result is an empty “transport bus” that can shuttle your Tryptophan to your brain, synthesize serotonin, and get rid of those blues, or possibly even help a little with sleepless nights or fatigue.<br />
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So don’t be such a downer and hit the gym!<br />
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When im not writing im running my Web development company here: <a href="http://onpagevisibility.com/">http://onpagevisibility.com</a>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-48941137983460309222010-03-04T23:29:00.000-08:002010-03-04T23:31:21.000-08:00Kinetic EnergyThe kinetic energy equation…<br /><br />E=(1/2)m v^2<br /><br />This is the Newtonian famous equation for Kinetic Energy. Note the terms are related as follows:<br /><br />E(energy) in Joules<br />M(mass) in kilograms<br />V(velocity) in meters per second<br /><br />Now the nature of this equation is fascinating to real world encounters. First it can be noted that is it very similar to the famous relativistic equation e=mc^2. We will cover the relation of these two equations in later blogs, but for now it’s useful to use Einstein’s equation to remember the very useful Newtonian equation for kinetic energy.<br /><br />How is this interesting in real life?<br /><br />First from the equation you can see that the energy is the square of its velocity. Considering this if you double your speed you increase your kinetic energy by 4 times…if you triple your speed you increase your kinetic energy by 9 times. <br /><br />Second, Newtonian kinetic energy is frame dependent, which means if an object is moving in relation to an object it has kinetic energy, but if two objects are moving with the same velocity and direction they have no kinetic energy in relation to each other.<br /><br />Now if we apply this information to real life objects we find something amazing. A common pebble if traveling at sufficient speed can have greater energy then the equivalent amount of TNT….just from its speed. Some interesting speed to energy ratios:<br /><br />These can be figured using the equation E=(1/2)m v^2:<br /><br />Speed necessary for 1 gram rock to have same energy as 1 gram TNT:<br /><br />2300 Meters per second – 2.3 Km/s – 1.43 miles/s – 5150 mp/h<br /><br />Note it is theorized that the sr-91 Aurora manned spy plane is believed to reach speeds of 5000mp/h. At those speeds if it impacted the ground the energy released would be equivalent to its weight in TNT just from kinetic energy.<br /><br />The International Space Station currently orbits at a speed of roughly 17,000 mp/h, at that speed its kinetic energy is roughly 9 times that of TNT. This is significant when it comes to space debris. If a piece of debris even the size of a quarter, which weighs in at approximately 6 grams was to impact the space station at these speeds, the energy released would be the equivalent of 54 grams of TNT and would at the least be troublesome. This would explain why NASA currently tracks over 19000 pieces of space junk as small as 4 inches. The May 2009 Hubble repair mission assigned to the space shuttle was nearly scrubbed due to the 1 in 180 chance for a strike with space debris. In addition the ISS has had to undergo modification of its orbit to avoid potential strikes. Space debris is a menace and it’s the kinetic energy of such impacts that is at fault.<br /><br />Kinetic energy is also significant when it comes to earth impacts with meteoroid or comets. One June 30, 1908 such an encounter occurred. An object from space burst over the Siberian forest releasing massive amount of energy. This object, likely moving potently in excess of 50,000 mph and possibly many tens of meters across burst with energy in excess of 10 Megatons, 1000 times the energy released over Hiroshima. Additionally a crater in Mexico known as the Chicxulub crater is believed to be the result of an impact with a celestial object of significantly greater size at possibly 6 miles in diameter. The result was a release of energy in excess of 100,000,000 megatons, and may well have been the cause of the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, that extinguished a large swath of bio-diversity.<br /><br />One final note. Often one will hear of the military using projectiles from tanks that are called kinetic energy penetrators, or KE-munitions. These rounds contain no explosive; rather they are made of depleted uranium which is very dense and very heavy. Traveling in excess of ½ mile per-second these rounds impart 3 ½ tons of force upon impact. And when used effectively the results are often referred to as a “kinetic kill”.<br /><br />Next week on to moving atoms and heat…Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-31307406445849571952010-02-24T21:47:00.000-08:002010-02-24T21:52:16.246-08:00Light Bulbs and ExerciseLight Bulbs<p></p><p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Ordinary Household incandescent bulbs or tungsten bulbs convert the energy or electricity into visible light.<span style=""> </span>This is done by heating a filament until it glows white hot.<span style=""> </span>The filament is small, and placed within a glass bulb that in the past was often evacuated of air giving it a tendency to “pop” when broken.<span style=""> </span>Commonly today these bulbs are filled with argon which protects the filament which radiates at over 1800F from touch or reacting with Oxygen found in the air.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">How bright a bulb appears is dependent on the amount of power it uses, or how much power it converts to heat.<span style=""> </span>The number of watts that the bulb uses reflects how much power it uses.<span style=""> </span>Although the number of watts is proportionate to how bright an incandescent bulb will shine it is not a measurement of brightness but of power use.<span style=""> </span>This can be seen when one compares the amount of light a 13 watt fluorescent bulb radiates and discovers its is equivalent to the brightness of a 60 watt incandescent bulb.<span style=""> </span>The reason for this discrepancy in power usage is that the incandescent bulb is far less efficient then a fluorescent bulb and converts considerably more energy into heat that is wasted and not used for light.</p><p class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">Sunlight</p><p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">Interesting statistic.</p><p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p><meta equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><meta name="ProgId" content="Word.Document"><meta name="Generator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><meta name="Originator" content="Microsoft Word 11"><link rel="File-List" href="file:///C:%5CUsers%5CGriffin%5CAppData%5CLocal%5CTemp%5Cmsohtml1%5C01%5Cclip_filelist.xml"><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:punctuationkerning/> <w:validateagainstschemas/> <w:saveifxmlinvalid>false</w:SaveIfXMLInvalid> <w:ignoremixedcontent>false</w:IgnoreMixedContent> <w:alwaysshowplaceholdertext>false</w:AlwaysShowPlaceholderText> <w:compatibility> <w:breakwrappedtables/> <w:snaptogridincell/> <w:wraptextwithpunct/> <w:useasianbreakrules/> <w:dontgrowautofit/> </w:Compatibility> <w:browserlevel>MicrosoftInternetExplorer4</w:BrowserLevel> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> </p><p class="MsoNormal">One Square Kilometer of Sunlight on the ground has about 1 Gigawatt of power.<span style=""> </span>If one remembers from previous blogs 1 Gigawatt is approximately equivalent to an average nuclear power plant, and often times an average nuclear power plant takes up a footprint of over one square kilometer.<span style=""> </span>So why not huge solar arrays?<span style=""> </span>Simply the technology is not there yet.<span style=""> </span>We will address the technology of solar cells in future blogs, but currently due to the difficulty of converting photons or sunlight into usable energy the average solar cell is only 15-20% efficient.<span style=""> </span>That implies if 1 sq/kl of sunlight contains 1 gigawatt of energy, at 20% efficiency it would take 5 times or 5 sq/kl of solar cells to generate 1 gigawatt of energy.<span style=""> </span>The world record for conversion of light to energy by very expensive solar cells known as photovoltaic is just in excess of 40%.<span style=""> </span>Solar cell research is a huge component of space exploration and is rapidly growing in the commercial sector.<span style=""> </span>Great strides are being made in this field and affordable 40%+ solar cells are in the near future.</p> <p></p>
<br /><p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">More fun Energy Facts:</p><p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">If a 140lb human runs up a 12 foot flight of stairs in 3 seconds they generate about 1 horse power.<span style=""> </span>This does not mean a man produces 1 horse power since a horse can produce this output for a sustained period of time.<span style=""> </span>A typical person can only produce about .14 horsepower in sustained activity; a professional cyclist can produce up to .66hp-.70hp for over an hour.</p><p class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">Energy Weight and Calories</p><p style="font-weight: bold;" class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">An average Human produces .14 horsepower during sustainable exercises.<span style=""> </span>An average person’s body is about 25% efficient in converting caloric energy into energy output.<span style=""> </span>That said to fuel our body during sustainable exercise uses 4 times .14 horsepower in energy, or .48 horsepower.<span style=""> </span>Sooo…follow me here… one horsepower is 746 watts, 746 watts x .48 = 426 watts = 426 joules per second…x 3600 seconds in an hour = 1,530,000 joules = 367 Calories (check the charts from earlier blogs)..Ride a bike, swim, exercise vigorously for an hour and you will burn around 367 Calories.</p><p class="MsoNormal">
<br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">Next week: Kinetic energy – let the fun begin.</p> Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-35944134372539722922010-02-16T16:49:00.000-08:002010-02-16T16:51:58.860-08:00More On Energy<!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:"Table Grid"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal">More on Energy</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">This info may be a little more dry, but its useful for building on later energy concepts.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">The first law of thermodynamics implies that energy is always conserved.<span style=""> </span>This discovery is extraordinarily important.<span style=""> </span>It indicated that however much energy you had in the beginning of a process the amount in the end although possibly in variant forms will always equal the beginning energy – never more, never less.<span style=""> </span>As an example to point back to early posts on energy.<span style=""> </span>When the calories or energy available in butters popcorn are converted into other forms of energy the amount before equals the amount after.<span style=""> </span>(The old saying is the 1<sup>st</sup> rule of thermodynamics states you cant win.<span style=""> </span>The 2<sup>nd </sup>rule which we will consider at a later time dictates you cant even break even) The trick is that the new form of energies may be varied and harder to quantify.<span style=""> </span>With the popcorn, if you metabolize it the energy would be converted into various forms, from heat to the motion of your muscles.<span style=""> </span>This is obvious when we heat up from vigorous exercise; part of the calories our body is converting to energy to exercise is being turned into heat.<span style=""> </span>So the energy in always equal the energy out.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">That said it’s important to understand a little about the measurements of energy and further the measurements of power.<span style=""> </span>We dealt a bit in previous blogs with the Calorie, and the measurement of a Calorie comes form the simplest from of determining how much energy something contains, that is how it converts to heat.<span style=""> </span>And as discussed previously the Calorie was originally just that, a measurement of how much the energy from a substance heated a specific amount of water. (One Calorie is defined as the amount of energy it takes to increase one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius)<span style=""> </span>Over time this system of measurement was replaced or improved upon with other methods.<span style=""> </span>Today we hear much more often of the Joule.<span style=""> </span>There are approximately 4200 joules in a Calorie. (The Joule is equal to the work done by one newton moving an object through one meter.<span style=""> </span>Further one newton is the amount of force required to accelerate one kilogram at a rate of one meter per second per second.) </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Another form of energy that we are familiar with from our electric bill is the kilowatt-hour or kWh.<span style=""> </span>A kWh is equal to 1000 watts of energy use for an hour.<span style=""> </span>1 kWh is approximately 1000 Calories.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Fun chart</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal">Energy Unit</p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal">Definitions</p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Calorie (food calorie or kilocalorie)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Heat 1kg of water 1 C<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Joule<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1/4182 Calories. Lift 1kg by 10cm<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Kilowatt-hour kWh<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">861 Calories – 3600000 Joules<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">BTU – British Thermal Unit<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">(fun since its referenced in The Matrix)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" width="295" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1BTU=1055Joules<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">So what is power?</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Power is the rate something happens divided by time – or the rate of energy transfer.<span style=""> </span>A familiar example of a “rate” is miles per hour.<span style=""> </span>One would travel x-miles in 1-hour.<span style=""> </span>So when defining the power of popcorn, if 1 gram of popcorn releases 7 Calories in 2 minutes you have the total that popcorn has the power of 210 Calories per hour.(those numbers are not necessarily the true power of popcorn just an expression to help understand how power is expressed)</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Typically power is expressed in units other then Calories.<span style=""> </span>The common ones are the watt, and often one hears of the horsepower.<span style=""> </span>A watt is 1 joule per second.<span style=""> </span>Horsepower was originally based on how much work a horse could do in a second which would prove useful for comparison to the steam engines of the time.<span style=""> </span>Later James Watt came to a more technical definition of a horse power at .18 Calories per second.<span style=""> </span>The story goes he made this measurement by finding that a pony could lift an average 220 lbf 100ft per minuet over an extended period of time.<span style=""> </span>Watt then extrapolated that a horse was 50% more powerful then a pony and came to power for 1hp @ 33,000 ft-lb/min – which can be simplified to .18 Calories.<span style=""> </span>All the exact numbers are not necessary to know.<span style=""> </span>A simple conversion that may be useful, especially when comparing battery power from things such as the Tesla Roadster, is that 1hp is approximately equal to 1kW.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">1 Horsepower <span style="font-family:Arial;">≈</span>1 kilowatt</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">More conversions and useful info:</p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <table class="MsoTableGrid" style="border: medium none ; border-collapse: collapse;" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"> <tbody><tr style=""> <td style="border: 1pt solid windowtext; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal">Value</p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal">Equal Too</p> </td> <td style="border-style: solid solid solid none; border-color: windowtext windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: 1pt 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal">Real life example</p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1 watt<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">One joule per second<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Flashlight<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1 horsepower<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Aprx. 1 kilowatt <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">(746 watts)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Man running fast up hill or stairs<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1 megawatt (MW)<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1 million watts<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Electric power for small town<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1 gigawatt 1GW<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">1 billion watts<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Average power plant<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">San Onofre has two reactors generating aprx. 1.17GW each<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">2 terawatts<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">2x10^12 watts<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style="font-size:10pt;">Average power use entire world<o:p></o:p></span></p> </td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /></td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /></td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /></td> </tr> <tr style=""> <td style="border-style: none solid solid; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /></td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /></td> <td style="border-style: none solid solid none; border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 2.05in;" width="197" valign="top"> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <br /></td> </tr> </tbody></table> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Next week: Power Power Power</p>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-85271083212920240622010-02-14T14:53:00.000-08:002010-02-14T14:56:28.072-08:00Musings: Sunny SundaysFirst and addition. Then an amusement. Soon a thing to look forward to. Life passes and one day you have a moment to breath and catch sight of a small framed of a picture of a much younger time, and you realize that the addition, the amusement, the bonus at the end of the work day is more then your loves, your daughters and sons. They where the sinews that connected the discoherent pieces of life. They bridged the goods and bads and subtly ran roots in the heart of life. They where the supports for our every breath…the joy of our lives, the soul of existence. If only we had known enough then to grab hold of every moment, and live for the then, not for the small framed pictures at the end of it allAnonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-35114498681592110882010-02-13T17:11:00.000-08:002010-02-13T17:14:58.861-08:00Off Topic: Its all postive thinking.<!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal">It is interesting that every time we think, every time we imagine, or ponder, theorize or scrutinize we change our brains.<span style=""> </span>The act of thinking releases chemicals in our brain.<span style=""> </span>These chemicals and electrical impulses associated with them dictate how or what we think, how we act and often our perception of the world around us. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Although there are many fascinating highlights of how these electrochemical processes are manifest in everyday life, we will very briefly here consider one.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">The cerebellum is situated at the base of the brain where the medulla oblongata intersects with the spinal cord.<span style=""> </span>This area of the brain has a primary function of motor control.<span style=""> </span>It does not actually create movement, but is a fine tuner.<span style=""> </span>It regulates and times the movement of the body and is a fundamental contributor to coordination.<span style=""> </span>Individuals with a dysfunction or damage to the cerebellum exhibit marked impairment of motor control and coordination.<span style=""> </span>In addition the nature of the cerebellums method of processing information or electro-chemical impulses is unique in the brain.<span style=""> </span>It is now believed that due to this unique feedforward or unidirectional information processing that the cerebellum acts as a type of processor for the brain, setting the brains speed, not much unlike the processor speed in a modern-day computer. </p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">That said how, do thoughts affect the cerebellum? Research done recently with scan photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) scans on the brain manifest an interesting correlation.<span style=""> </span>Individuals dwelling on negative thoughts exhibit a measurable decrease in activity in the cerebellum.<span style=""> </span>Dr. Amen, a leading pioneer in SPECT scans even noted that one individual dwelling on negative thoughts had her cerebellum, “completely shut down.” That said we all know the prevalence of the use of positive thoughts in athletics almost to the point of it being a cliché.<span style=""> </span>Well it seems there is a clear physical connection of mental attitude to actions that links the notion of negative thinking being involved in athletic slumps.<span style=""> </span>So, although it’s an aphorism, success in sports may be in a quite physical way 90% positive thinking.</p>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-81062972704440144602010-02-12T18:47:00.000-08:002010-02-12T18:56:31.693-08:00Off Topic: Brittle Bones?<!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <p class="MsoNormal">Off Topic:<span style=""> </span>Brittle Bones?</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal">How often we hear of elderly individuals with broken hips, or fractured bones.<span style=""> </span>And for most the believe is this is attributable to a byproduct of increased brittleness in ones bones.<span style=""> </span>This though is only partially true.</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">We are all aware of the amazing ability of children to “bounce back” from seemingly horrendous falls or bumps.<span style=""> </span>This is due to the nature of children’s bones.<span style=""> </span>Early on in the bones of children the calcification and formation of osseous tissue, or Calcium tissue, is incomplete and does not reach full tensile strength of roughly 20,000 MN/m2 (20GPa – compare this with steel at 200 GPa) until adulthood.<span style=""> </span>Interestingly though, between the ages of twenty-five and seventy-five the tensile strength of bones only decreases roughly 22%.<span style=""> </span>Although a portion of the increased incidence of fractures may be attributable to this embrittlement, it can by no means account for the disproportionate number of fractures in the elderly.<span style=""> </span>So what then may be the cause?</p> <p class="MsoNormal"><o:p> </o:p></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal">Interestingly the source of a large number of fractures in seniors may not be structural but rather neurological.<span style=""> </span>It appears that on occasion senior’s diminished command of their nervous responses may by the culprit.<span style=""> </span>The sudden response to being startled or trying to correct a potential fall may cause the misfire and contraction of the iliopsoas and gluteus medium muscles, producing sufficient force to shear the neck of the femur.<span style=""> </span>This results in the individual falling to the ground, possibly on an object, that is then erroneously blamed for the broken hip.<span style=""> </span>Apparently a similar type of situation has been observed in certain African deer that experience a similar fracture when startled by a lion.</p>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-22466078697665629522010-02-09T15:06:00.000-08:002012-10-14T11:09:08.184-07:00Why the Gasoline Addiction?Why the Gasoline addiction?<br />
<br />
So much hype and hyperbole surround the use of gasoline for fuels. And ultimately there is a good reason, and the economics and physics dictate that if there was a simple better alternative it would be far more ubiquitous and not necessarily squelched by the evil oil companies. Here are some interesting statistics on the physics and energy of various materials touted as good fossil fuel alternatives.<br />
<br />
First let’s look at the culprit, gasoline. Gasoline contains 10 Calories per gram. When compared with other everyday items gasoline contains more energy per gram. Some examples of other items where mentioned in previous blog posts, but this list is in addition:<br />
<br />
<!--[endif]--><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:latentstyles deflockedstate="false" latentstylecount="156"> </w:LatentStyles> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} </style> --><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:"Table Grid"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <br />
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Item<o:p></o:p></div>
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Calorie Energy Per Gram<o:p></o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p></div>
<br /></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" valign="top" width="295"><div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p> </o:p></div>
<br /></td> </tr>
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Flashlight battery<o:p></o:p></div>
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0.01<o:p></o:p></div>
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Lithium-ion battery (laptop type)<o:p></o:p></div>
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0.10<o:p></o:p></div>
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TNT (trinitrotoluene) <o:p></o:p></div>
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0.651<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> </tr>
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PETN<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" valign="top" width="295"><div class="MsoNormal">
1<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> </tr>
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Butter<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" valign="top" width="295"><div class="MsoNormal">
7<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> </tr>
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Gasoline<o:p></o:p></div>
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10<o:p></o:p></div>
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Methane (CH2)<o:p></o:p></div>
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13<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> </tr>
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Hydrogen (H2)<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 221.4pt;" valign="top" width="295"><div class="MsoNormal">
26<o:p></o:p></div>
</td> </tr>
</tbody></table>
<br />
<br />
The high energy yield of gasoline is coupled with its useful properties. Gas when mixed properly with oxygen will cause a conflagration relatively efficiently and quickly releasing its energy for use. It is this energy, the process of mixing with oxygen, and sparking of an induced conflagration, that is the core process of an internal combustion engine. The high relative energy and ease of extraction make gas the logical choice to date for vehicles.<br />
<br />
That said lets look at some of the statistics of other hyped alternative energy choices for motor vehicles.<br />
<br />
Batteries<br />
<br />
As can be seen in the chart above at the best batteries put out 1/100 the energy of gasoline. At this ratio considering that the average automobile contains about 100 lbs of gas or 15-17 gallons, it would take 5 tons or 10000lbs of expensive lithium-ion type batteries to equal the energy of gasoline. This is obviously not practical for the average automobile. That said, it has been tried..<br />
<br />
Is the Tesla Roadster the answer? The Tesla incorporates 6831 relatively small lithium-ion batteries to create bursts of nearly 250 hp and 200 foot pounds of torque. This is on par with an average sedan like the Honda Accord. But it’s still impossible to escape the details of the energy use. It is true that the Tesla can run at bursts of 250hp and a top speed of 125 mph, but in order to pull these numbers it would be taxing the fuel cells at an unsustainable rate, likely depleting their available energy in under 15 minuets if ran at full speed. These numbers manifest that fact:<br />
<br />
<!--[endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0in; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:8.5in 11.0in; margin:1.0in 1.25in 1.0in 1.25in; mso-header-margin:.5in; mso-footer-margin:.5in; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} </style> --><!--[if gte mso 10]> <style> /* Style Definitions */ table.MsoNormalTable {mso-style-name:"Table Normal"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; mso-style-noshow:yes; mso-style-parent:""; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} table.MsoTableGrid {mso-style-name:"Table Grid"; mso-tstyle-rowband-size:0; mso-tstyle-colband-size:0; border:solid windowtext 1.0pt; mso-border-alt:solid windowtext .5pt; mso-padding-alt:0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-border-insideh:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev:.5pt solid windowtext; mso-para-margin:0in; mso-para-margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-ansi-language:#0400; mso-fareast-language:#0400; mso-bidi-language:#0400;} </style> <![endif]--> <br />
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Source<o:p></o:p></div>
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Available Energy <o:p></o:p></div>
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Weight<o:p></o:p></div>
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<o:p> </o:p></div>
<br /></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 14.7pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.7pt;" valign="top" width="261"><div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p> </o:p></div>
<br /></td> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext -moz-use-text-color; border-style: none solid solid none; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt medium; height: 14.7pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.7pt;" valign="top" width="261"><div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p> </o:p></div>
<br /></td> </tr>
<tr style="height: 18.4pt;"> <td style="border-color: -moz-use-text-color windowtext windowtext; border-style: none solid solid; border-width: medium 1pt 1pt; height: 18.4pt; padding: 0in 5.4pt; width: 195.7pt;" valign="top" width="261"><div class="MsoNormal">
6831 Lithium-ion batteries<o:p></o:p></div>
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53kWh fully charged = 45,571 Calories<o:p></o:p></div>
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992 lbs<o:p></o:p></div>
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16 Gallons 87 Octane Gasoline<o:p></o:p></div>
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480,000 Calories (10 C/g)</div>
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100lbs<o:p></o:p></div>
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The Tesla Roster the darling of the electric car industry fully charged on new batteries that have not experienced any of the normal capacity lost expected over time has 10% the available energy in the average internal combustion engine. This does not even take into consideration the immense cost of replacing the batteries after an average life cycle of 5-7 years, and the environmental toll the disposal of lithium-ion batteries in-mass would ultimately have. Great strides are being made in the field of battery technology, but the chasm to equal the available energy in gasoline is still immense.<br />
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Hydrogen<br />
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One may have noticed in the chart above the incredible energy available in hydrogen, in-fact it has 2.6 times more energy per gram then gasoline. This coupled with the benign byproduct of only H2O-water, hydrogen seems an ideal alternative at first blush. These facts belie the truth though. The simple fact is hydrogen is at best a vehicle for stored energy, a type of battery, not a source of energy. Hydrogen is generally not available naturally in the environment (an interesting fact based on the atomic weight of Hydrogen that will be considered in later blog posts), it has to be manufactured. The process of manufacturing hydrogen takes energy. The plants that manufacture hydrogen would need to run on some other conventional source of energy such as gasoline or coal. Net-net the amount of energy you can get out of hydrogen is at best equal to the amount put in. So the burning of hydrogen although clean on the streets is not creating a truly eco-friendly alternative to gasoline.<br />
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Other Alternatives.<br />
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Hybrid type vehicles that utilize both batteries and conventional internal combustion engines are a viable alternative. They draw upon the immense energy stored on gasoline while balancing the improving technology of batteries. But this considered, they still propagate the Gasoline addition – just at a more docile rate.<br />
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One hundred mile per gallon cars in the near future maybe, but a cure for the gasoline addiction – not any time soon, there really are not any known substances that equal the energy output and advantageous properties of gasoline – not yet at least.<br />
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Next week: More fun facts on Energy<br />
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When im not writing im running my Web development company here: <a href="http://onpagevisibility.com/">http://onpagevisibility.com</a>Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-5083624466039339882010-02-07T19:10:00.000-08:002010-02-08T14:40:46.110-08:00Off Topic: Parthian Shot<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://www.istockphoto.com/file_thumbview_approve/11311330/2/istockphoto_11311330-bow-and-arrow.jpg"><img style="float:left; margin:0 10px 10px 0;cursor:pointer; cursor:hand;width: 380px; height: 145px;" src="http://www.istockphoto.com/file_thumbview_approve/11311330/2/istockphoto_11311330-bow-and-arrow.jpg" border="0" alt="" /></a><br /><br />(On occasion there will be additional posts with will deviate from the weekly physics consideration.)<br /><br />Most are at least vaguely familiar with the exploits of the slave leader Spartacus during the Roman Third Servile War. Without giving the due time to a fascinating piece of history it can be summarized that the revolt of Spartacus was squelched by the Roman General Marcus Licinius Crassus. Crassus one of the wealthiest of all historical figures gained the pinnacle of historical significance for his backing and financial support of the fledgling Julius Caesar, ultimately allowing for his stunning political career. But I digress. The point of the mention of Crassus I am getting to, although somewhat circuitously. Crassus longing for greater military victories and recognition from such victories found himself in a pitched battle in 53BC against the Parthian Empire near the town known in antiquity at Carrhae, often believed to be the Haran of the biblical narrative and auspicious home to Abraham. From the battle, ignominious defeat and death of Crassus came the phrase “Parthian shot” used metaphorically by the likes of Arthur Conan Doyal. The notoriety of this historical nugget begs the questions, where and why was this “shot” notable and what where the mechanics and engineering that made it possible?<br /><br />The Parthian shot was a tactic used by the skillful Parthian archers. While mounted on light horses the Parthian would feign a hasty retreat inclining the opposing forces to open ranks or drop guard. Then while in a full gallop away from the enemy formation, the Parthian archers would turn their bodies back and shoot with an incredible show of equestrian skill at the unsuspecting troops. This great feat was owed in part to the ability of the Parthians on horseback but was more notably facilitated by the often unappreciated and fascinating engineering of the ancient composite bow.<br /><br />To appreciate the composite bow it is helpful to step back and look at the notorious long bow of the English empire. The battles of Crecy in 1346 and Henry V’s Battle of Agincourt in 1415 of Shakespearean fame brought the military and historical significance of the long bow and firepower into focus. Technically the bow is one of the most effective ways of storing the energy of human muscles for application toward the projection of a missile weapon. The English long bow of historical fame although initially constructed of English yew, was quickly replaced by the Spanish yew since it manifests high compressive strength and elasticity. In fact the European Yew (Taxus baccata) was found in abundance throughout Spain and most of the Mediterranean. Even to this day it can be found growing amidst the detritus of ancient Pompeii. What proves interesting about this fact is that curious absence of the use of yew for bows in Spain or the Mediterranean in antiquity, including with the ancient Parthians. Why is this so?<br /><br />The yew has a unique composition that mitigated its use in the southern Mediterranean. Typically the wood of a yew bow tends to break down and lose its mechanical properties in warm weather. In fact at a temperature above 95 degrees Fahrenheit yew bows lose their efficacy as a weapon. This property confined the usefulness of the yew for bow construction to cool climates, making it an ideal weapon of the forces of Henry V but absent in the infamous battles of the Romans or Greeks that preceded. <br /><br />This brings us to the composite bow of the Parthians. From an engineering standpoint the maximum energy a human can put into a bow is limited by the mechanics of the human body. Typically one can draw an arrow back about 24 inches, and even a strong individual can not pull back with a force exceeding 80lbs, or about 210 Joules (0.05 Calories). This said, if one was to take a bow that starts with a slacked string that is essentially unstressed and draw back the arrow for the total 24 inches, the bow reaches greatest tension at the end of the pull. In this situation the total available energy stored in the bow is one half the available energy, the remaining half retained in the mechanics of the archer. Taking that into consideration the available energy to be transferred to the arrow is approximately 105 Joules (.025 Calories). Generally the measured energy available in an English long bow under strain is just slightly less than this figure. What though of the Parthinian archers?<br /><br />If we look historically at references to composite bows of the southern Mediterranean from antiquity up to as recently napoleonic times we can find that the Greek word <span style="font-style:italic;">palintonos</span>, or “back-stretched” is used, particularly in the Homeric Classic of the Odyssey. In this arrangement considerable force was necessary to string the bow, bringing it from a bent-backward or negative bend to the strung position. But once done as long in good condition the bow was then in a constant state of pre-stressed prior to being further drawn by the archer. This process leaves the composite bow with distinctive recurve or “cupids bow” like look. The pre-stress stores a portion of energy that was then added to by the application of muscle energy by the archer upon drawing back the bow. This added pre-stress energy allowed for up to 80 percent increase of available energy for application upon the arrow, while still only requiring the equivalent 210 Joules of pull back force by the archer it results in 170 Joules stored energy as opposed to the long bows potential 105 Joules.<br /><br />In addition to this fact the composite nature of the bow facilitated the greater energy storage potential described above. Where the long bow was typically a yew construction, a composite bow as that made by the Parthians was variably made of a wood core with a tension surface of dried tendon and a compression face of horn. These materials having come mostly from animals where use to operating at body temperature or roughly 100 degrees Fahrenheit, and where well suited for the Mediterranean climate while maintaining their mechanical properties.<br /><br />So there we have the distinction. The shorter lighter composite bow is set as distinct from the larger heavier wooden yew bow or “long bow”. It was this compact size and mobility facilitated by the construction technique and ideal materials that allowed for the Parthianian archers to shoot backwards from horseback while feigning retreat, forever founding the phrase “Parthian shot”.Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3702007793204002314.post-74113435355455002792010-02-02T13:12:00.000-08:002010-02-02T13:15:02.376-08:00Energy - the Beginning.Energy realized.<br /><br />Typically when reading physics chemistry books one will run across definitions of energy that are less then useful when applied to real live experience. Hopefully this brief discussion over the next few blog posts will hopefully bring the idea of energy into a more useful format.<br /><br />Typically energy is defined as “the ability to do work.” Although correct this definition is somewhat abstract. Another more useful definition is “anything that can be turned into heat.” Either way although these definitions describe energy they do not explain its nature or make it useful. <br /><br />So how then does energy work?<br /><br />Often the confusion begins with the litany of terms used to define energy. So without getting into all of them and their conversion factors too quickly we will analyze one of them, the Calorie (this is the food Calorie as apposed to the lower case c. calorie often found in physics or chemistry that is equal to 1/1000 of a food Calorie).<br /><br />The Calorie is simply the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius. So as a practical example. If one was to take one gram of gasoline which is equivalent to 10 Calories, one could burn the one gram of gasoline under a one kilogram tub of water, and in a isolated environment where no energy or heat was lost to the air or containers – an ideal system – once the one gram of gasoline was burned completely it would have raised the temperature of the water by one degree Celsius. (This is not easy process to get 100% accurate since the beginning water temperature affects the outcome, but it is the method to define a Calorie).<br /><br />Now that said the reality is that info is still not very useful in real life. But this data below is.<br /><br />PETN or popcorn?..Special Ops got it all wrong!<br /><br />Now that we understand a little about the nature of a Calorie unit of energy, how is that information useful – or at least interesting?<br /><br />To begin lets take two substances and compare their Caloric energy and application. First we have the average buttered popcorn. The average buttered popcorn you can pickup to munch on while watching your favorite flick has 5 Calories per gram. Although the majority of the Calories are in the butter it is still interesting to make the comparison to PETN a.k.a. Plastic Explosives. <br /><br />PETN (PantaErythritol TetraNitrate) on average contains approximately 1 Calorie per gram. That means strictly speaking buttered popcorn contains 5 times more energy then plastic explosives, which is one of the most powerful high explosives known. So then why do Military Special Ops or demolition teams pack their rucksack with PETN when they could carry 5 times less weight in popcorn and get the same energy output? The difference is in the nature of how quickly the Caloric energy can be converted into heat, or as defined at the beginning how quickly the energy can do work. With PETN the detonation velocity is 8500 meters per second when pressed in a steel tube, it detonates at a temperature of approximately 4230 degrees Celsius. This rapid detonation and high heat create a massive volume of gasses suddenly. Because the gasses it produces take up a greater volume then the surrounding air prior to the detonation, the rapid introduction of these gasses to the surrounding environment cause everything to be suddenly and violently pushed out of the way including the air itself. Since the air itself is pushed a wave of compressed or “pushed” air travels out quickly creating a “shock wave” of high pressure air that further destroys or disturbs anything in its path. PETN has the ability to rapidly detonate because of the nature of its molecular structure.<br /><br />On the other hand, buttered popcorn does not intrinsically have the ability to suddenly turn its Caloric energy into heat and work. It takes a slower process such as burning or the chemical process in our body’s called metabolism to extract the energy / work / heat. So although it has a higher Caloric count or contains more energy then PETN, the nature of the substance does not allow it to be useful in blowing things up. (although as a side note if one was to eat popcorn and set at the task of demolishing something with a sledge hammer as apposed to detonating it with PETN…the conversion of calories to energy to the work of demolition would have a similar outcome)<br /><br />Next Week, Why the Gasoline addiction?Anonymoushttp://www.blogger.com/profile/16427687322118498751noreply@blogger.com0